Language/OS - Multiplatform Resource Library/LANGUAGE OS.iso/t3_1/doc.lha/documentation/manual/object.mss

Text File | 1987-06-30 | 11KB | 270 lines

@part[OBJECT, root "TMAN.MSS"]  @Comment{-*-System:TMAN-*-}
@chap[Objects]


@Tau[] is an @i[object-oriented] language.  @Tau[] programs
are concerned for the most part with creating and manipulating
@iix[objects], which represent all data, and form the
currency of computation in @Tau[].  Particular objects are defined not
by bit patterns or by addresses within a computer but rather by their
behavior when called or when passed to procedures which manipulate them.

Objects are obtained most primitively through the use of @tc[QUOTE]
(page @pageref[QUOTE]), @tc[LAMBDA] (page @pageref[LAMBDA]), and @tc[OBJECT]
(page @pageref[OBJECT]) special forms, and less primitively by calling
procedures defined in the standard environment, e.g. @tc[CONS] and
@tc[COMPOSE], which create new objects or return existing ones.  (An
implementation of @Tau[] would presumably define many such procedures
using more primitive object constructors; for example, @tc[COMPOSE]
might be defined by a @Tau[] program which employs @tc[LAMBDA] to
construct the composed procedure.  Thus the question of what kinds of
objects are truly primitive and which are not is left unanswered by this
manual.)


@section[Literals]

As described in section @ref[CoreLanguageSection], some expressions
evaluate @qu"to themselves" or to copies of themselves.  These include
numbers, strings, and characters, and are called
@i[self-evaluating literals.]  However, some expressions, lists and
symbols in particular, do not evaluate to themselves.  When an
expression yielding a particular constant value is required,
it is necessary to use @tc[QUOTE].  Self-evaluating literals
and quoted constants are called @iix[literals].

Although not all objects have external representations, some objects
which do have external representations have undefined evaluation
semantics.  These include vectors (section @ref[VectorsSection]) and the
empty list.  @tc[QUOTE] must also be used to obtain these values as
constants.

@info[NOTES="Special form"]
@desc[@el[](QUOTE @i[object]) @yl[] @i[object]]
Yields @i[object].  The @i[object] is not evaluated; thus @tc[QUOTE]
provides a literal notation for constants.
@begin[ProgramExample]
(QUOTE A)          @ev[]  A
(QUOTE (A B))      @ev[]  (A B)
(QUOTE (+ X 8))    @ev[]  (+ X 8)
(QUOTE (QUOTE A))  @ev[]  (QUOTE A)
@end[ProgramExample]
Since @tc[QUOTE] is used so frequently, an abbreviated external syntax
is provided for @tc[QUOTE] forms: @tc['@i[object]] is an alternative
external representation for the list @tc[(QUOTE @i[object])].
@tindex[']
  @begin[ProgramExample]
'A          @ev[]  A
'(A B)      @ev[]  (A B)
'(QUOTE A)  @ev[]  (QUOTE A)
''A         @ev[]  (QUOTE A)
  @end[ProgramExample]
Objects returned by literal expressions are read-only; they should not
be altered using @tc[SET] or any other side-effecting form.
@EndDesc[QUOTE]


@section[Procedures]

A @i[procedure]@index[procedures] (or @i[routine]@index[routines])
is any object which may be called.  Ordinarily, a procedure is called
as a result of the evaluation of a @i[call] (page @pageref[CallSemantics]).
The most primitive mechanism for creating procedures is the
@tc[LAMBDA] special form.

@IndexEntry[key = "Functions", text = "Functions, @i<see> Procedures"]

@dc{ Talk about why procedures are important; first-class citizenship;
surprising roles; etc. ...? }

@AnEquivE[Tfn="LAMBDA",Efn="CLOSURE"]
@info[NOTES="Special form",EQUIV="FUNCTION"]
@desc[@el[](LAMBDA @i[variables] . @i[body]) @yl[] @i[procedure]]
A @tc[LAMBDA]-expression evaluates to a procedure.
When the procedure is called, the @i[variables]
are bound to the arguments to the call, and the @i[body], an implicit
block, is evaluated.  The call yields the value of the last form in the
@i[body].

@begin[ProgramExample]
((LAMBDA (X Y) (LIST Y X)) 7 'FOO)  @ev[]  (FOO 7)
@end[ProgramExample]

If @i[variables] is not a proper list, but ends in a symbol @i[x], then
the variable @i[x] will be bound to a list of the arguments beginning at
the position corresponding to @i[x].

@begin[ProgramExample]
((LAMBDA (X . Y) (LIST Y X)) 7 'FOO 'BAZ)  @ev[]  ((FOO BAZ) 7)
((LAMBDA Y Y) 7 'FOO 'BAZ)                 @ev[]  (7 FOO BAZ)
@end[ProgramExample]

If any @i[variable] is @tc[()] instead of a symbol, then the
corresponding argument in a call is ignored.  @dc{ ref @tc[IGNORE]! }

@i[Scoping:]@index[scope]@index[lexical scoping]
The values of the bound variables are apparent only in code lexically
contained in the body of the @tc[LAMBDA]-expression, and not to routines
@i[called] from the body.  That is, like SCHEME and ALGOL and unlike
most Lisp dialects, @tau[] is a lexically scoped language, not a dynamically
scoped language.

@i[Closure:]@index[closure]
@dc{ Rewrite this paragraph. }
The @i[procedure] is said to be a @iix[closure] of the
@tc[LAMBDA]-expression in the current lexical environment.  That is, when
@i[procedure] is called, the @i[body] is evaluated in an environment
which is the same as that in which the @tc[LAMBDA]-expression was
evaluated, augmented by the bindings of the @i[variables].  For example,
if @tc[Z] is mentioned in the @i[body], and it is not one of the
@i[variables], then it refers to whatever @tc[Z] was in scope when the
@tc[LAMBDA]-expression was evaluated, @i[not] (necessarily)
to the the variable @tc[Z] that is in scope when @i[procedure] is called.
@EndDesc[LAMBDA]


@section[Object identity]

Every object has @i[identity,] in the sense that one may determine
whether two given values are the same object.
@index[Equality predicates]
@index[Identity]

In the following:
  @begin[ProgramExample]
(DEFINE A (LIST 'P 'Q))
(DEFINE B (LIST 'P 'Q))
  @end[ProgramExample]
there is no way (other than @tc[EQ?]) to distinguish the two objects
which are the values of @tc[A] and @tc[B].  Nonetheless, since @tc[LIST]
is defined to return a new object each time it is called, the two
objects are distinct; and indeed, a side-effect to one object will not affect
the value of the other:
  @begin[ProgramExample]
(SET (CAR A) 'R)
A  @ev[]  (R Q)
B  @ev[]  (P Q)
  @end[ProgramExample]

Some system procedures and special forms create new objects, others
return objects which already exist.  In some cases, it is not defined
which of the two happens; it is only guaranteed that some object with
appropriate characteristics is returned.  For example, @tc[CONS] creates
new objects; @tc[QUOTE] expressions yield pre-existing constant objects;
and numerical routines such as @tc[+] may or may not create new numbers.

The @tc[EQ?] predicate primitively determines object identity.

@desc[@el[](EQ? @i[object1 object2]) @yl[] @i[boolean]]
Returns true if @i[object1] and @i[object2] are identically the same
object.  @tc[EQ?] is the @i[finest] comparison predicate for
objects, in the sense that if @tc[EQ?] cannot distinguish two objects,
then neither can any other equality predicate.  @dc{ what the??? }
@EndDesc[EQ?]

@desc[@el[](NEQ? @i[object1 object2]) @yl[] @i[boolean]]
@tc[NEQ?] is the logical complement of @tc[EQ?].
  @begin[TEG]
(NEQ? @i[object1 object2]) @ce[] (NOT (EQ? @i[object1 object2]))
  @end[TEG]
@EndDesc[NEQ?]

Uniqueness of literals (other than symbols and characters) isn't defined
in general.  For example,
  @begin[ProgramExample]
(EQ? '(A B C) '(A B C))
  @end[ProgramExample]
may yield either true or false, depending on the implementation.
Two similar-looking literal expressions in different places
may or may not yield distinct objects.

However, a given literal expression will always yield the same object
each time it is evaluated. @dc{ forward reference }
  @begin[ProgramExample]
(LET ((F (LAMBDA () '(A B C)))) (EQ? (F) (F)))  @yl[]  @r[true]
  @end[ProgramExample]


@section[Symbols]
@label[symbols section] @Comment{ref. semantics chapter}

@iix[Symbols] are named objects which have wide applicability as
tokens and identifiers of various sorts.  Symbols are uniquely
determined by their names, and have a convenient external syntax
by which they may be obtained.

Uniqueness of symbols @i[is] defined:
  @begin[ProgramExample]
(EQ? 'FOO 'FOO)  @ev[]  @r[true]
  @end[ProgramExample]

@dc{ Give details of external representation.  Should we avoid defining
the \ syntax here?  It really seems extraneous, and surely it shouldn't
be encouraged. }

@info[NOTES="Type predicate",EQUIV="SYMBOLP"]
@desc[(SYMBOL? @i[object]) @yl[] @i[boolean]]
Returns true if @i[object] is a symbol.
@EndDesc[SYMBOL?]

See also @tc[SYMBOL->STRING] and @tc[STRING->SYMBOL], page
@pageref[STRING->SYMBOL].


@section[Predicates and truth values]

Conditional expressions in @Tau[] (see section
@ref[ConditionalsSection]) usually involve the evaluation of a
@iixs[test] expression; the object yielded by the test is then used to
make a control decision, depending on whether the value is @iix[false]
or @iix[true].  There is one false value; this is a distinguished object
called @iix[null].  Any other value is considered to be true.  A value
intended to be used in this way is called a @iixs[truth value].
@index[Conditionals]

A @iixs[predicate] is any procedure which yields truth values.
Predicates are typically given names which end in @tc[?],
e.g. @tc[NULL?] and @tc[EQ?].  Calls to predicates are
naturally used as test expressions.

An @iixs[equality predicate] is a two-argument predicate which is
side-effectless and unaffected by side-effects, and acts like an
equivalence relation in the mathematical sense.

@desc[@el[]NIL @yl[] @i[false]]
This system variable has as its value the object @i[null.]  Null serves
two distinct purposes in @Tau[]:  it is the standard false value,
as returned by test expressions and tested by conditionals; and it
is the @iix[empty list], a list which has no elements.  Null's external
representation is @tc[()].

(Programmers with prior LISP experience should note that in most other
dialects of LISP, null and the symbol @tc[NIL] are identical.  This
is not the case in @tau[]: @wt['NIL @ev[] NIL], but @wt[NIL @ev[]
()], and @wt[(EQ? NIL 'NIL)] is false.)
@EndDesc[NIL]

@info[IndexHack]
@desc[@el[]T @yl[] @i[true]]
The system variable @tc[T] has as its value a standard true value.
The identity of this value is unimportant, since any non-false value
is considered to be true for the purposes of tests.
@EndDesc[T]


@section[Types]

A @iixs[type] may be seen either as a collection of objects
with similar behavior, or as a characteristic function for such a
collection, or as the behavior characteristic of similar objects; these
views are equivalent.

A @iixs[type predicate] is a predicate which is defined on all objects and
whose value is not affected by any side-effects (that is, calling the
type predicate on a particular object will return the same value
regardless of the point at which it is called with respect to arbitrary
other computations).  Type predicates are usually used to determine a
given object's membership in a type.

@dc{ is more discussion in order here? ... }